* Much of this material is drawn from my dissertation, Philosophical and Scientific Analysis of the Nature of the Early Human Embryo (Georgetown University, 1991); and two of my previously published articles: "Scientific and philosophical expertise: An evaluation of the arguments on 'personhood'", Linacre Quarterly 60:1 (Feb. 1993), 18-46; and "The impact of scientific misinformation on other fields: Philosophy, theology, biomedical ethics, public policy", Accountability in Research 2:4 (1993), 243-272. Only because most of these arguments cut across several fields, emphases have been used throughout to aid those unfamiliar with certain terms and issues.
1 Dianne N. Irving, Philocophical and Scientific Analysis of the Nature of the Early Human Embryo (1991), particularly Chap. 5; D. Irving, "The PSDA and the depressed elderly: 'intermittent incompetency' revisited", Journal of Clinical Ethics 4:1 (1993), 74-80; D. Irving, "Accountability in research using persons with mental illness", Accountability in Research (in press, summer 1993); C. Ward Kischer, "Human development and reconsideration of ensoulment", Linacre Quarterly 60:1 (1993), 57-63; James J. Carberry and Douglas W. Kmiec, "How law denies science", Human Life Review 18:4 (1992); Anthony Fisher, "Individuogenesis and a recent book by Fr. Norman Ford", Anthropotes 2 (1991), 199 ff; F. Tassaeau, M.H. Boucand et al, Etats Vegetatifs Chroniques: Repercussions Humaines; Aspects Medicaux, Juridiques et Ethiques (Paris: Editions Ecole Nationale de la Sante Publique, 1991); Gilbert Meilander, "Abortion: the right to an argument", Hastings Center Report 19:6 (1989), 13-16; Judith W. Ross, "The puzzle of the permanently unconscious", Hastings Center Report 22:2 (1992), 2; Bonnie Steinbock, "Recovery from persistent vegetative state? the case of Carrie Coons", Hastings Center Report 19:4 (1989), 14-15. John Matthew Aragona, "Dangerous relations:doctors and extracorporeal embryos, the need for new limits to medical inquiry", Journal of Contemporary Health Law and Policy 7 (1991), 307-337; Robert Barry, "Self-consciousness and personhood", Linacre Quarterly 46:2 (1979), 141-142; Benedict Ashley, "A critique of the theory of delayed hominization", in D.G. McCarthy and A.S. Moracjewski (eds.), An Evaluation of Fetal Experimentation: An Interdisciplinary Study (St. Louis: Pope John Center, 1976), 113-133; Benedict Ashley, "Delayed hominization: Catholic theological perspective", The Interaction of Catholic Bioethics and Secular Society, R.F. Smith (ed.) (Braintree, MA: The Pope John Center, 1992), 163-180; William E. May, "Zygotes, embryos, and persons", Ethics and Medics, Part I 16:10 (1991); Germain C. Grisez, Abortion: The Myths, the Realities and the Arguments (New York: Corpus Books, 1970); Germain C. Grisez, "When do people begin?", Proceedings of the American Catholic Philosophical Association 63 (1990); A. Regan, "The human conceptus and personhood", Studia Moralis 30 (1992); A.A. Howespian, "Who or what are we?", Review of Metaphysics 45 (March 1992), 483-502; R. Werner, "Abortion: the moral status of the unknown", in Social Theory and Practice 3 (1974), 202; R. Wertheimer, "Understanding the abortion argument", Philosophy and Public Affairs 1 (1971), 67-95; B. Brody, "On the humanity of the fetus", in Tom Beauchamp and LeRoy Walters (eds.), Contemporary Issues in Bioethics (California: Wadsworth, 1978), 229-240; J. Santamaria, "In Vitro fertilization and embryo transfer", in M.N. Brumsky (ed.), Proceedings of the Conference: In Vitro Fertilization: Problems and Possibilities (Clayton, Victoria: Monash Center for Human Bioethics, Clayton, Vic., 1982), 48-53; G.T. Noonan, "An almost absolute value in history", in J.T. Noonan (ed.), The Morality of Abortion (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1970), 1-59; T. Iglesias, "In Vitro fertilization: the major issues", Journal of Medical Ethics 10 (1984), 32-37; W. Quinn, "Abortion: identity and loss", Philosophy and Public Affairs 13 (1984), 24-54; Congregation for the Doctrine of the Faith, "Instruction on Respect for Human Life in its Origin and on the Dignity of Procreation", reprinted in L'Osservatore Romano (Vatican City: 16 Mar. 1987), 3; Commonwealth of Australia, Senate Select Committee on the Human Embryo Experimentation Bill (Official Hansard Report), (Canberra: Commonwealth Government Printer, 1986), 25; Parliamentary Assembly of the Council of Europe, "On the use of human embryos and foetuses for diagnostic, therapeutic, scientific, industrial and commercial purposes", Recommendation 1046 (1986), 1; and Davis v. Davis, 64 11 (D. Tenn. 1989). [Back]
2 John A. Robertson, "Extracorporeal embryos and the abortion debate", Journal of Contemporary Health Law and Policy (1986) 2:53, 53-70; ibid., "Rights, symbolism, and public policy in fetal tissue transplants", Hastings Center Report (1988) 18:6, 5-19; ibid., "Resolving disputes over embryos", Hastings Center Report (1989) 19:6, 7-12; ibid., "Reply", Hastings Center Report (1991) 21:5, 44; James W. Walters, "Proximate personhood as a standard for making difficult treatment decisions: imperiled newborns as a case study", Bioethics (1992) 6:1, 12-22; George J. Annas, "Webster and the politics of abortion", Hastings Center Report (1989) 19:2, 36-38; Karen Dawson, "Segmentation and moral status: a scientific perspective", in Peter Singer et al, Embryo Experimentation (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1990), 53-64; A.L. Muggleton-Harris and I. Findlay, "In vitro studies on 'spare' human preimplantation embryos in culture", Human Reproduction (1991) 6:1, 85-92. [Back]
3 Dianne N. Irving, "The impact of scientific 'misinformation' on other fields: Philosophy, theology, biomedical ethics, public policy", Accountability in Research 2:4 (April 1993); Kischer (1993). [Back]
4 Ibid.; also, James J. Carberry and Douglas W. Kmiec (1992); Peter McCullagh, The Foetus as Transplant Donor: Scientific, Social and Ethical Perspectives (New York: John Wiley and Sons, 1987); Anthony Fisher (1991), 199 ff; A.A. Howespian (1992), 483-502; Glenn Ellen Duncan, "Grim Harvest", The Catholic World Report, Aug. 1992, 16-23; see also change in basic embryological definitions in D. Irving, "'New age' embryology text books: 'Pre-embryo', 'pregnancy' and abortion counseling; Implications for fetal research", Linacre Quarterly 1994, 61:2; also, "Individual testimony before the NIH Human Embryo Research Panel", Linacre Quarterly 1994, 61:2; also, "Getting the facts straight in post-abortion syndrome: A response to Stotland" ("Letters to the Editor"), Linacre Quarterly 1994, 61:1:3-6. [Back]
5 Dianne N. Irving, "Quality assurance auditors: How to survive between a rock and a hard place", Quality Assurance: Good Practice, Regulation, and Law, Spring 1994; also, "Which ethics for science and public policy?", Accountability in Research 1993, 3:77-100; also, "Science, philosophy, theology - and altruism" the chrosimos and the zygon", in Hans May, Meinfried Striegnitz, Philip Hefner (eds.) Loccumer Protokolle (Rehburg-Loccum, Deutschland: Evangelische Akademie Loccum, 1992); Etienne Gilson, Being and Some Philosophers (Toronto: Pontifical Institute of Mediaeval Studies, 1963), esp. Chap. 1; Kevin Doran, "Person - a key concept for ethics", Linacre Quarterly (1989) 56, 4:38-49. [Back]
6 A.C. Crombie, Medieval and Early Modern Science (New York: Doubleday Anchor Books, 1959), 10; Alan E. H. Emery, Elements of Medical Genetics (New York: Churchill Livingstone, 1983), 10; Etienne Gilson, Being and Some Philosophers (Toronto: Pontifical Institute of Mediaeval Studies, 1963); Diogenes Allen, Philosophy for Understanding Theology (Atlanta: John Knox Press, 1985). [Back]
7 Aristotle, in De Anima, 1.5411b, 24-28; in Richard McKeon (ed.), The Basic Works of Aristotle (New York: Random House, 1941), p. 554; ibid., 1.5.411b, 14-18, p. 554; ibid., 1.4.408b, 13-15, p. 548; in Physica 2.1.193b, p.238; ibid., 2.2.194b, 12-14, p. 240; ibid., 2.2.193b, 33-37, p. 239; in Categoriae, 5.3b, 10-12, p. 12; ibid., 5.4a, 10-13, p. 13; in Metaphysica 8.1.1042a, 30-31, p. 812; ibid., 3.2.997b18 - 998a10, p. 721; ibid., 11.1.1059a34 - 1059b14, p. 850-851; ibid., 7.13.1038b, 28-34, p. 805. See also, Henry B. Veatch, Aristotle: A Contemporary Approach (Indiana: Indiana University Press, 1974); Joseph Owens, The Doctrine of Being in the Aristotelean Metaphysics (Pontifical Institute of Mediaeval Studies, Toronto, 1957); and Irving (1991), Appendix A. For Thomas Aquinas, Summa Theologica, Fathers of the English Dominican Province (trans.) (Westminster, MD: Christian Classics, 1981) Vol. 1: Ia.q29, a.1, ans., ad.2,3,5, p. 156; ibid., a.2, ans., p. 157; ibid., Ia.q75, a.4, ans., p. 366; ibid., IIIa. q19, a.1, ad.4.2127; ibid., in On Being and Essence, Armand Mauer (trans.), (Toronto: Pontifical Institute of Mediaeval Studies, 1983), Chap. 2; ibid., in The Division and Method of the Sciences, Armand Mauer (trans.), (Toronto: Pontifical Institute of Mediaeval Studies, 1986), p. 14, 29, 39, 40. See also, Kevin Doran, "Person - a key concept for ethics", Linacre Quarterly (1989) 56:4, 39; Frederick Wilhelmsen, Man's Knowledge of Reality (New Jersey: Prentice-Hall, Inc., 1956), esp. Chaps. 2 and 3, and 78-79, 103-105; George P. Klubertanz, The Philosophy of Human Nature (New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts, Inc., 1953), 35, 302, 308, 312; ibid, The Philosophy of Being (New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts, Inc., 1953), 35, 74, 115. [Back]
8 Gregory Vlastos, Plato: A Collection of Critical Essays (Indiana: University of Notre Dame Press, 1978); Jowett, The Dialogues of Plato (New York: Random House, 1937); Rene Descartes, Meditations on First Philosophy, in John Cottingham, Robert Stoothoff and Dugald Murdoch (trans.), The Philosophical Writings of Descartes (New York: Press Syndicate of the University of Cambridge, 1984), 2nd Med., 12; for typical discussions of the theoretical problems of Cartesians, rationalists and empiricists, see: Leonard J.Eslick, "The material substrate in Plato", in Ernan McMullin, (ed.), The Concept of Matter in Greek and Medieval Philosophy (Indiana: University of Notre Dame Press, 1963); Christopher Fox, Locke and the Scriblerians: Identity and Consciousness in Early Eighteenth-Century Britain (Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1989); Gilbert Meilander, Challenging the Limits of Dualism (University Park, PA: Pennsylvania State University Press, 1987); Frederick Wilhelmson, Man's Knowledge of Reality (New Jersey: Prentice-Hall, Inc. 1956); Frederick Copleston, A History of Philosophy (New York: Image Books, Vols. 1-9, 1962); E. Gilson op cit. note 5; Norman Kemp-Smith, A Commentary to Kant's "Critique of Pure Reason" (London: The Macmillan Press Ltd., 1979), xxxiv, xlii, xliii, xllv. [Back]
9 Aristotle, in Richard Mckeon (ed.), The Basic Works of Aristotle (New York: Random House, 1941), "Metaphysica" (Book Theta) 9.1.1046a - 9.8.1050b, pp. 826-831; Thomas Aquinas, On Being and Essence, Armand Mauer (trans.), (Toronto: The Pontifical Institute of Mediaeval Studies, 1983), 58 and 62-63; see also, Klubertanz, George, Philosophy of Human Nature (New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts, 1953, 124ff; and Klubertanz, Introduction to the Philosophy of Being (New York: Meredith Publ. Co., 1963), 124; also, Dianne N. Irving, Philosophical and Scientific Analysis of the Nature of the Early Human Embryo (Washington, D.C.: Georgetown University, 1991); dissertation, (see charts, p. 31, 288). [Back]
10 Antoine Suarez, "Hydatidiform moles and teratomas confirm the human identity of the preimplantation embryo," Journal of Medicine and Philosophy 15 (1990): 627-635. [Back]
11 Keith L. Moore, The Developing Human (Philadelphia: W.B. Saunders Co., 1982), 14; Benjamin Lewin (ed.), Genes III (New York: John Wiley and Sons, 1983), 9-13, 202-203 and 681; Alan E.H. Emery, Elements of Medical Genetics (New York: Churchill Livingstone, 1983), 93; Jerome Lejeune, in Martin Palmer (ed.), A Symphony of the Preborn Child: Part Two (Hagerstown, MD: NAAPC, 1989), 9-10, 16-19 and 30. [Back]
12 K. Gordon et al, "Production of Human tissue plasminogen activator in transgenic mouse milk:, Bio Technology 5 (1987): 1183; T. Weishous et al, "Secretion of enzymatically active human renin from mammalian cells using an avian retroviral vector", Gene 45:2 (1986), 121-129; A. Tanaka and D. Fujita, "Expression of a molecularly cloned human C-SRC oncogene by using a replication-competent retroviral vector", Molecular and Cellular Biology 6:11 (1986); 3900-9; A. Schnieke et al, "Introduction of the human pro alpha 1 (I) collagen gene into pro alpha 1 (I) - deficient Mov-13 mouse cells leads to formation of functional mouse-human hybrid type I collagen," Proceedings of the National Academy of Science - USA 84:3 (Feb. 1987); 764-68. [Back]
13 Lewin (1983), 386-394, 401; Emery (1983), 19; Schnieke (supra, note 12); Hart (infra, note 16); Kollias (infra, note 14); B. Olofsson, V. Pizon, et al, "Structure and expression of the chicken epidermal growth factor receptor gene locus", European Journal of Biochemistry 160:2 (1986); 261-6; L. Saez and L. Leinwand, "Characterization of diverse forms of myosin light chain gene: unexpected interspecies homology with repetitive DNA", Archives of Biochemistry and Biophysics 233:2 (1984); 565-72; R. Olle, J. Sikorov and F. Rougeon, "Structural relation among mouse and human immunoglobulin VH genes in the subgroup III", Nucleic Acids Research, 11:22 (1983); 7887-97; N. Proudfoot et al, "The structure of the human zeta-globin gene and a closely linked, nearly identical pseudogene", Cell 31:32 (1982); 553-63. [Back]
14 G. Kollias, J. Hurst, E. deBoer, and F. Grosveld, "The human beta-globulin gene contains a downstream developmental specific enhancer," Nucleic Acids Research 15:14 (July 1987); 5739-47; L. Covarrubias et al, "Cellular DNA rearrangements and early developmental arrest caused by DNA insertion in transgenic mouse embryos", Molecular and Cellular Biology 7:6 (1987); 2243-7; R. K. Humphries et al, "Transfer of human and murine globin-gene sequences into transgenic mice", American Journal of Human Genetics 37:2 (1985); 295-310; J. Khillan et al, "Gene Transactivation mediated by the TAT gene of human immunodeficiency virus in transgenic mice", Nucleic Acids Research; C. Pinker et al, "Tissue-specific, inducible and functional expression of the Ead MHC class II gene in transgenic mice," EMBO Journal 4:9 (1985); 2225-30; R. Palmiter et al, "Cell lineage ablation in transgenic mice by cell-specific expression of a toxin gene", Cell 50 (1987); 437. [Back]
15 Carlos Bedate and Robert Cefalo, "The zygote: to be or not be a person", Journal of Medicine and Philosophy 14:6 (1989); 641; see also, Thomas J. Bole, III, "Metaphysical accounts of the zygote as a person and the veto power of facts", Journal of Medicine and Philosophy 14 (1989); 647-653; also Bole, "Zygotes, souls, substances, and persons", Journal of Medicine and Philosophy 15 (1990); 637-652. [Back]
16 H. Holtzer, J. Biekl, and B. Holtzer, "Induction-dependent and lineage-dependent models for cell-diversification are mutually exclusive,", Progress in Clinical Biological Research 175 (1985); 3-11; F. Mavilio, A. Sineone et al, "Differential and stage-related expression in embryonic tissues of a new human homeobox gene," Nature 324:6098 (1986); 664-8; C. Hart, A. Awgulewitch et al, "Homeobox gene complex on mouse chromosome II: molecular cloning, expression in embryogenesis, and homology to a human homeo box locus", Cell 43:1 (1985); 9-18. [Back]
17 Lewin (1983), 11-13, 202-203 and 681; Emery (1983), 93. [Back]
18 A.E. Szulmann, U. Surti, "The syndromes of hydatidiform mole. I. Cytogenic and morphologic correlations," American Journal of Obstretrics and Gynecology 131 (1978); 665-671; Moore (1982), 30; Lejeune (1989), 18-19; M.S.E. Wimmers, J.V. Van der Merwe, "Chromosome studies on early human embryos fertilized in vitro," Human Reproduction 7 (1988); 894-900; S.D. Lawler and R.A. Fisher, "Genetic studies in hydatidiform mole with clinical correlations," Placenta 8 (1987); 77-88; G.R. Martin, "Teratocarcinomas and mammalian embryogenesis," Science 209 (1980); 768-776; and Alberts et al, Molecular Biology of the Cell (New York: Garland Publishing, 1983). [Back]
20 Richard McCormick, S.J., "Who or what is the preembryo?", Kennedy Institute of Ethics Journal 1:1 (1991), 1; Clifford Grobstein, "The early development of human embryos", Journal of Medicine and Philosophy (1985), 10:213-236. [Back]
21 See specifically, O'Rahilly, Ronan and Fabiola Muller, Human Embryology and Teratology (New York: Wiley-Liss, 1992), 55; Kischer, C. Ward, "Human development and reconsideration of ensoulment", Linacre Quarterly 60:1 (Feb. 1993), 57-63; also, Larsen, William J. Human Embryology (New York: Churchill Livingstone, 1993); Carlson, B., Human Embryology and Developmental Biology (St. Louis: Mosby Books, 1994); Sadler, T.W., Langman's Medical Embryology (6th ed.) (Baltimore: Williams & Wilkins, 1990); and Patten, Bradley, Human Embryology (3rd ed.) (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1968), 49. [Back]
22 Lejeune (1989), 14-15. [Back]
23 Lejeune (1989), 17; Mavilio et al, "Molecular mechanisms of human hemoglobin switching: selective undermethylation and expression of globin genes in embryonic, fetal and adult erythroblasts," Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences USA 80:22 (1983); 6907-11; see Lewin and Emery op cit, note 17. [Back]
24 Moore (1982), p. 33, 62-63, 68, 111 and 127; also, K. Chauda et al, "An embryonic pattern of expression of a human fetal globin gene in transgenic mice," Nature 319:6055 (1986), 685-9; G. Migliaccio et al, "Human embryonic hemopoiesis. Kinetics of progenitors and precursor underlying the yolk sac - liver transition," Journal of Clinical Investigation 78:1 (1986), 51-60. [Back]
25 Emery (1983), 57, 83-85. [Back]
26 Karen Dawson, "Segmentation and moral status", in Peter Singer et al, Embryo Experimentation (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1990); see also, Moore (1982), 133. [Back]
26 C. Ward Kischer, "Human development and reconsideration of ensoulment", Linacre Quarterly 60:1 (1993), 57-63. [Back]
28 Moore (1982), 53, 56. [Back]
29 Norman Ford, When Did I Begin? (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1988), 137, 156. [Back]
31 William A. Wallace, "Nature and human nature as the norm in medical ethics", in Edmund D. Pellegrino, J.Langan and J. C. Harvey, (eds.), Catholic Perspectives on Medical Morals (Dordrecht: Kluwer Academic Publishing, 1989), 23-53. [Back]
32 Keith F. Purcell and John C. Kotz, An Introduction to Inorganic Chemistry (Philadelphia: Saunders College/Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1980), 54-56 and 139-141; Peter Hoenen, The Philosophy of Inorganic Compounds (Indiana: West Baden College, 1960). [Back]
33 Ralph T. Omerman and Herbert M. Clark, Radioisotope Techniques (New York: McGraw-Hill Book Co., 1960), 2ff. [Back]
34 Klubertanz, The Philosophy of Human Nature, 312; Benedict Ashley, "A critique of the theory of delayed hominization", in D.G. McCarthy and A.S. Moraczewski (eds.), An Ethical Evaluation of Fetal Experimentation: An Interdisciplinary Study (St. Louis: Pope XXIII Medical-Moral Research and Education Center, 1976), 113-133. [Back]
35 D. Gareth Jones, "Brain birth and personal identity", Journal of Medical Ethics 15:4 (1989), 173-178; Donald MacKay, in Jones, (1989); Rahner, Ruff and Haring, in Jones (1989); Hans-Martin Sass, "Brain life and brain life: a proposal for normative agreement", Journal of Medicine and Philosophy (1989) 14, 45-59; Singer and Wells, in Jones (1989); Carol A. Tauer, "Personhood and human embryos and fetuses", Journal of Medicine and Philosophy (1985) 10, 253-266; Michael Lockwood, "Warnock versus Powell (and Harradine): when does potentiality count?", Bioethics (1988) 3:3, 187-213; J. Goldenring, "Development of the fetal brain", New England Journal of Medicine (1982) 307, 564; ibid. "The brain-life theory: towards a consistent biological definition of humanness", Journal of Medical Ethics (1985) 11, 198-20; Thomasine Kushner, "Having a life versus being alive", Journal of Medical Ethics (1984) 10:5, 8; M.C. Shea, "Embryonic life and human life", Journal of Medical Ethics (1985) 11, 205-209; Clifford Grobstein, "The early development of human embryos", Journal of Medicine and Philosophy (1985) 10, 213-236; Gertler, in P. Singer, Practical Ethics (London: Cambridge University Press, 1981); Michael V. Bennett, "Personhood from a neuroscientific perspective", in Doerr et al, Abortion Rights and Fetal Personhood (Long Beach: Cresline Press, 1989). [Back]
37 Jones (1989); Engelhardt (1985); also, many of the writers in note 33 op cit. [Back]
38 H.T. Engelhardt, The Foundations of Bioethics (New York: Oxford University Press, 1985), 111; Peter Singer, "Taking life: abortion", in Practical Ethics (London: Cambridge University Press, 1981), 118; Peter Singer and Helga Kuhse, "The ethics of embryo research", Law, Medicine and Health Care (1987) 14,13-14; Kuhse and Singer, "For sometimes letting - and helping - die", Law, Medicine and Health Care (1986) 3:4, 149-153; Kuhse and Singer, Should the Baby Live? The Problem of Handicapped Infants (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1985), 138; Michael Tooley, "Abortion and Infanticide", in Marchall Cohen et al (eds.), The Rights and Wrongs of Abortions (New Jersey: Princeton University Press, 1974), 59 and 64. [Back]
39 Jones (1989), 175-176. [Back]
41 Dianne N. Irving, "Psychiatric research: Reality check", The Journal of the California Alliance for the Mentally Ill 1994, 5:1:42-44; also, "Can either scientific facts or 'personhood' be mediated?", The Center for Medical Ethics and Mediation: Pontis March 1994, 2:1:3-5. [Back]
1, 2,