Scientific and Philosophical Expertise
cont'd

«  1, 2, 3, 4

Endnotes

1. See Etienne Gilson, Being and Some Philosophers (Toronto: Pontifical Institute of Mediaeval Studies, 1949); also, Frederick Copleston, A History of Philosophy (New York: Image Books, 1962). [Back]

2. See Dianne Nutwell Irving, Philosophical and Scientific Analysis of the Nature of the Early Human Embryo (Doctoral dissertation: Washington, D.C., Department of Philosophy, Georgetown University, April 1991), pp. 267-273 (includes charts of 26 of the arguments). [Back]

3. Fr. Tom Daly, "When does a human life begin? The search for a marker event", in Karen Dawson and Jill Hudson (eds.), Proceedings of the Conference: IVF: The Current Debate (Clayton, Victoria, Australia: Monash Center for Human Bioethics, 1987), 79. [Back]

4. Irving, Philosophical and Scientific Analysis of the Nature of the Early Human Embryo (1991), particularly Chap. 5.. In addition to the writers I have referenced infra, for an non-exhaustive list of other writers who basically argue similarly with the scientific and/or philosophical critiques presented here include (see also Note 15): [arranged in "rough" categories, as there is usually substantial over-lapping] Science: C. Ward Kischer, "A new-wave dialectic: The reinvention of human embryology", Linacre Quarterly (1994), 61:66-81; C. Ward Kischer, "In defense of human development", Linacre Quarterly (1992), 59:68-75; P. McCullagh, The Foetus As Transplant Donor: Scientific, Social and Ethical Perspectives (New York: John Wiley & Sons, 1987), 483-502; E.F. Diamond, "Abortion? NO!", Insight (Feb. 1972) 36-41. Philosophy: W. Quinn, "Abortion: identity and loss", Philosophy and Public Affairs 13 (1984): 24-54; B. Brody, "On the humanity of the fetus", in Tom Beauchamp and LeRoy Walters, (eds.), Contemporary Issues in Bioethics (California: Wadsworth, 1978), 229-240; R. Werner, "Abortion: the moral status of the unknown", in Social Theory and Practice, 3 (1974): 202; R. Wertheimer, "Understanding the abortion argument", Philosophy and Public Affairs (1971), 1:67-95. Science/Philosophy: Laura Palazzani, "The nature of the human embryo: philosophical perspectives", Ethics and Medicine (1996), 12:1:14-17; C. Ward Kischer and D.N. Irving, The Human Development Hoax: Time To Tell The Truth (Clinton Township, MI: Gold Leaf Press,1995), pre-marketing edition; Antonio Puca, "Ten years on from the Warnock Report: Is the human embryo a 'person'?", Linacre Quarterly (May 1995), 62:2:75-87; Agneta Sutton, "Ten years after the Warnock Report: Is the human neo-conceptus a person?", Linacre Quarterly (May 1995), 62:2:63-74; A. Zimmerman, "I began at the beginning", Linacre Quarterly (1993), 60:86-92; A.A. Howsepian, "Who or what are we?", Review of Metaphysics (March 1992), 45:483-502; S. Heaney, "Aquinas and the presence of the human rational soul in the early human embryo", The Tomist (Jan. 1992), 56:1:19-48; Anthony Fisher, "Individuogenesis and a recent book by Fr. Ford", Anthropotes (1991), 2:199ff; Stephen Schwarz, The Moral Question of Abortion (Chicago: Loyola University Press, 1990), esp. Chapters 6 and 7; S. Schwarz and R.K. Tacelli, "Abortion and some philosophers: A critical examination", Public Policy Quarterly (1989), 3:81-98; T. Iglesias, "In vitro fertilization: The major issues", Journal of Medical Ethics 10 (1984): 32-37; J. Santamaria, "In vitro fertilization and embryo transfer", in M.N. Brumsky, (ed.), Proceedings of the Conference: In Vitro Fertilization: Problems and Possibilities (Clayton, Victoria: Monash Center for Human Bioethics, Clayton, Vic., 1982), 48-53. Science/Philosophy/Theology: Mark Johnson, "Quaestio Disputata: Delayed Hominization; Reflections on some recent Catholic claims for delayed hominization", Theological Studies (1995), 56:743-763; B. Ashley and A. Moraczewski, "Is the biological subject of human rights present from conception?", in P. Cataldo and A. Moraczewski, The Fetal Tissue Issue: Medical and Ethical Aspects (Braintree, MA: The Pope John Center (1994), Chapter Three; B. Ashley and K. O'Rourke, Ethics of Health Care (2nd ed.)(Washington, D.C.: Georgetown University Press, 1994), pp. 149-151; B. Ashley, "Delayed hominization: Catholic theological perspectives", in R.E. Smith (ed.), The Interaction of Catholic Bioethics and Secular Society (Braintree, MA: The Pope John Center, 1992), esp. pp. 165, 176; A. Regan, "The human conceptus and personhood", Studia Moralis (1992), 30:97-127; W.E. May, "Zygotes, embryos and persons", Ethics and Medics, Part I (Oct. 1991), 16:10; G. Grisez, "When do people begin?", Proceedings of the American Catholic Philosophical Association (1990), 63:27-47; T.J. O'Donnell, "A traditional Catholic's view", in P.B. Jung and T. Shannon, Abortion & Catholicism (New York: Crossroad Publishing Co., 1988), pp. 44-47; Benedict Ashley and Kevin O'Rourke, Health Care Ethics: A Theological Analysis (St. Louis: Catholic Health Association, 1987, 2nd ed.), pp. 2-6, 218-233; Jean de Siebenthal, "L'animation selon Thomas d'Aquin: Peut-on affirmer qui l'embryon est d'abord autre chose qu'un homme en s'appuyant sur Thomas d'Aquin?", in L'Embryon: Un Homme. Actes du Congres de Lausanne 1986 (Lausanne: Societe suisse de bioethique, 1986, 91-98); M.A. Taylor, Human Generation in the Thought of Thomas Aquinas: A Case Study on the Role of Biological Fact in Theological Science (Ann Arbor: University Microfilms International, 1982); Benedict Ashley, "A critique of the theory of delayed hominization," in D.G. McCarthy and A.S. Moraczewski, (eds.), An Ethical Evaluation of Fetal Experimentation: An Interdisciplinary Study (St. Louis: Pope John XXIII Medical-Moral Research and Education Center, 1976), 113-133; G.C. Grisez, Abortion: The Myths, the Realities and the Arguments (New York: Corpus Books, 1970). (Science)/(Philosophy)/Law: D.N. Irving, amicus curiae brief, Alexander Loce vs The State of New Jersey (1994)(No. 93-1149); S. Heaney, "On the legal status of the unborn", The Catholic Lawyer 33:4:305-323; J.J. Carberry and D.W. Kmiec, "How law denies science", Human Life Review (1992), 18:4:105; G.T. Noonan, "An almost absolute value in history", in J.T. Noonan (ed.), The Morality of Abortion (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1970), 1-59. [Back]

On related issues, several recent writers have criticized the legal validity of Roe vs Wade: "Testimony of Douglas W. Kmiec, Professor of Constitutional Law, University of Notre Dame, Straus Distinguished Visiting Professor, Pepperdine University, Before the Subcommittee on the Constitution, Committee of the Judiciary, U.S. House of Representatives" April 22, 1996; "Testimony of Mary Ann Glendon, Learned Hand Professor of Law, Harvard University, Before the Subcommittee on the Constitution, Committee of the Judiciary, U.S. House of Representatives", April 22, 1996; M.A. Glendon, Abortion and Divorce in Western Law: American Failures, European Challenges (Cambridge MA: Harvard University Press, 1987); C. Crandall, "Failed predictions", First Things (June/July 1996), pp. 62ff; C. Forsythe, "The effective enforcement of abortion law before Roe vs Wade", Part V: "Legal Perspectives", in Brad Stetson (ed.), The Silent Subject (Westport, CN: Praeger Publishers, 1996); P. Cunningham and C. Forsythe, "Is abortion the 'first right' for women?: Some consequences of legal abortion", in J.D. Butler and D.F. Walbert, Abortion, Medicine and the Law (4th ed.)(New York: Facts on File, Inc, 1992). Several well-known documents also argue for personhood at "fertilization": Congregation for the Doctrine of the Faith, "Instruction on Respect for Human Life in its Origin and on the Dignity of Procreation," [Donum Vitae] reprinted in L'Osservatore Romano (Vatican City: 16 March 1987), 3; Commonwealth of Australia, Senate Select Committee on the Human Embryo Experimentation Bill 1985, (Official Hansard Report), (Canberra: Commonwealth Government Printer, 1986), 25; Parliamentary Assembly of the Council of Europe, "On the use of human embryos and foetuses for diagnostic, therapeutic, scientific, industrial and commercial purposes", Recommendation 1046 (1986), 1; and Davis v Davis, 641 1 (D. Tenn. 1989). For a non-exhaustive list of arguments counter fertilization in addition to those infra, see: Science: H.J.Morowitz and J.S. Trefil, The Facts of Life: Science and the Abortion Controversy (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1992); Karen Dawson, "Fertilization and moral status: A scientific perspective", in P. Singer, Embryo Experimentation (1990), 43-52. Science/Philosophy: Stephen Buckle, Karen Dawson and Peter Singer, "The syngamy debate: when precisely does a human life begin?", in Peter Singer et al (eds.), Embryo Experimentation (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1990), 214-215. Science/Theology: Jean Porter, "Individuality, personal identity, and the moral status of the preembryo: A response to Mark Johnson", Theological Studies (1995), 56:763-770; L. Cahill, "The embryo and the fetus: New moral contexts", Theological Studies (1993), 54:124-42; Shannon and A.B. Wolter, "Refelctions on the moral status of the pre-embryo", Theological Studies (1990), 51:603-26; C. Tauer, "The tradition of probabilism and the moral status of the early embryo", in P.B. Jung and T.A. Shannon (eds.), Abortion & Catholicism (New York: The Crossroad Publishing Co., 1988), pp. 54-84; Michael J. Coughlan, "'From the moment of conception…': The Vatican instruction on artificial procreation techniques", Bioethics 2(4), 1988, p. 294-316; Karl Rahner, "The problem of genetic manipulation", in Theological Investigations 9 (New York: Herder and Herder, 1972), p. 226, n. 2; J. Donceel, "Immediate animation and delayed hominization", Theological Studies 31 (1970), p. 75-105. Science/?: Clifford Grobstein, Science and the Unborn: Choosing Human Futures (New York: Basic Books, 1988); Clifford Grobstein, "A biological perspective on the origin of human life and personhood", in M.W. Shaw and A.E. Doudera (eds.), Defining Human Life (Washington: Association of University Programs in Health Administration, 1983). British document: Dame Mary Warnock, Report of the Committee of Inquiry into Human Fertilization and Embryology (London: Her Majesty's Stationary Office, 1984), esp. p. 17. [Back]

5. Antoine Suarez, "Hydatidiform moles and teratomas confirm the human identity of the preimplantation embryo", Journal of Medicine and Philosophy, 15 (1990): 627-635. [Back]

6. Carlos Bedate and Robert Cefalo, "The zygote: to be or not be a person", Journal of Medicine and Philosophy 14 (6), 1989: 641; Richard McCormick, S.J., "Who or what is the preembryo?", paper presented at the Andre E. Hellegers Lecture (Washington, D.C., Georgetown University: May 17, 1990) (pre-publication manuscript); see also Richard McCormick, S.J., "Who or what is the preembryo?", Kennedy Institute of Ethics Journal 1(1), 1991, 1; Norman Ford, "The case against destructive embryo research", in Proceedings of the Conference: IVF: The Current Debate, 90-95; also Ford, When Did I Begin? (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1988); William Wallace, "Nature and human nature as the norm in medical ethics", in Edmund D. Pellegrino, John Langan and John Collins Harvey, (eds.), Catholic Perspectives on Medical Morals (Dordrecht: Kluwer Academic Publishing, 1989), 23-53. [Back]

7. D.N. Irving, Philosophical and Scientific Analysis of the Nature of the Early Human Embryo (1991); note 2 supra, pp. 267-273. [Back]

8. Thomas J. Bole, III, "Metaphysical accounts of the zygote as a person and the veto power of facts", Journal of Medicine and Philosophy 14 (1989): 647-653; also, "Zygotes, souls, substances, and persons", Journal of Medicine and Philosophy 15 (1990): 637-652. [Back]

9. Singer and Wells, in D. Gareth Jones, "Brain birth and personal identity", Journal of Medical Ethics 15 (1989): 175. [Back]

10. Michael Lockwood, "When does life begin?", in Michael Lockwood, (ed.), Moral Dilemmas in Modern Medicine (New York: Oxford University Press, 1985), 10; also Lockwood, "Warnock versus Powell (and Harradine): When does potentiality count?", Bioethics 2 (3), 1988: 187-213. [Back]

11. M.C. Shea, "Embryonic life and human life", Journal of Medical Ethics 11 (1985): 205-209. [Back]

12. R.M. Hare, "When does potentiality count? A comment on Lockwood", Bioethics 2 (3), July 1988: 214. [Back]

13. H.T. Englehardt, The Foundations of Bioethics (New York: Oxford University Press, 1985), 111. [Back]

14. Peter Singer, "Technology and procreation: How far should we go?", Technology Review (Feb./Mar. 1985). [Back]

15. See Dianne N. Irving, "Science, philosophy, theology - and altruism: the chorismos and the zygon", in Hans May, Meinfried Striegnitz, Philip Hefner (eds.), Loccumer Protokolle (Rehburg-Loccum: Evangelische Akademie Loccum, 1996); Etienne Gilson, Being and Some Philosophers (Toronto: Pontifical Institute of Mediaeval Studies, 1949); Frederick Copleston, A History of Philosophy (New York: Image Books, 1962); Leonard J. Eslick, "The material substrate in Plato", in Ernan McMullin, ed. The Concept of Matter in Greek and Medieval Philosophy (Indiana: University of Notre Dame Press, 1963); Frederick Wilhelmsen, Man's Knowledge of Reality (New Jersey: Prentice-Hall, Inc., 1956), esp. Chaps. 2 and 3. [Back]

16. For an excellent explanation of the difference between Boethius' and Aquinas' definitions of a "human being" or "human person", see Kevin Doran, "Person - a key concept for ethics", Linacre Quarterly 56 (4), 1989, 39. [Back]

17. See J. Cottingham, R. Stoothoff, D. Murdoch (trans.), The Philosophical Writings of Descartes (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1989). [Back]

18. Aristotle, in his De Coelo (1.5.271b, 9-10), in Richard McKeon (ed.), The Basic Works of Aristotle (New York: Random House, 1941). [Back]

19. See Irving, Philosophical and Scientific Analysis… (1991); esp. pp. 83-125, and Chap. 5. [Back]

20. Aristotle, Categories, in Sir David Ross, Aristotle (New York: Random House, 1985), p. 20-21; also, Aristotle, Analytica Posteriora 2.19, 100a 3-9, in Richard McKeon (ed.), The Basic Works of Aristotle (New York: Random House, 1941); for Aquinas' similar position, see: The Division and Method of the Sciences, Q6, a.1, reply to 1st Q, pp. 65-66; ibid., Q6, reply to 3rd Q, pp. 71-72; ibid., Q6, a.2, pp. 176-178; ibid., Q6, a.4, p. 90; ibid., Q5, a.3, p.35 (also quoted there in note 21: In I Post. Anal. lect. 1-3, and in De Veritate 1.1); see also George Klubertanz, Introduction to the Philosophy of Being (New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts, 1963), pp. 293-298. [Back]

21. Benjamin Lewin (ed.), Genes III (New York: John Wiley and Sons, 1987), pp. 11-13,17-19, 30, 32, 33, 35, 37, 79, 91, 93-94; also Alan E.H. Emery, Elements of Medical Genetics (New York: Churchill Livingstone, 1983), pp. 25, 34, 65, 101-103. [Back]

22. Aristotle, Categories 5. 2a, 11-13, (McKeon, 1941), p. 9; also (Ross, 1985), p. 24; also (McKeon, 1941): Metaphysica 7.11.1036b, 3-7, p. 800; 8.1.1042a, 30-31, p. 812; even in his De Anima (McKeon, 1941) Aristotle argues for the composite: 2.1.412b, 6-10, p. 555 and 2.1.413a, 3-4, p. 556; for Thomas Aquinas, see his Summa Theologica, Fathers of the English Dominican Province (trans.) (Westminster, Md.: Christian Classics, 1981, Vol. 1): Ia.q29,a.1,ans., ad2,3,5, p. 156; ibid., a.2, ans., p. 157; see also Kevin Doran, "Person - a key concept for ethics", Linacre Quarterly 56(4), 1989, p. 39. [Back]

23. Aristotle, De Anima (McKeon, 1941): 1.4.408b, 13-15, p. 548; also, 1.4.488b, 25-26, p. 548; for Aquinas see ST Ia.q75, a.2, ad.2, p. 365; also see Frederick Wilhelmsen, Man's Knowledge of Reality (New Jersey: Prentice-Hall, Inc., 1956), pp. 78-79 and 103-105. [Back]

24. Keith L. Moore, The Developing Human (Philadelphia: W.B. Saunders Company, 1982, 3rd. ed.), pp. 14ff; also Benjamin Lewin, Genes III (New York: John Wiley and Sons, 1987), pp. 24ff. [Back]

25. K. Moore, The Developing Human (Philadelphia: W.B. Saunders Company, 1982), p. 1; W.J. Larsen, Human Embryology (New York: Churchill Livingstone, 1993), p. 1; Bruce M. Carlson, Human Embryology and Developmental Biology (St. Louis, MO: Mosby, 1994), pp. 3,33-34; R. O'Rahilly and F. Muller, Human Embryology and Teratology (New York: Wiley-Liss, 1994), pp. 19, 23. [Back]

26. Bruce M. Carlson, Human Embryology and Developmental Biology (St. Louis, MO: Mosby, 1994), p. 31. [Back]

27. Aristotle, Physica, (McKeon, 1941): 1.7.191a, 15-18, pp. 232-233; also 2.3.194b, 23-35, pp. 240-241; see also, Henry B. Veatch, Aristotle: A Contemporary Approach (Indiana: Indiana University Press, 1974), Chaps. 2,3; for Aquinas, see George Klubertanz, The Philosophy of Human Nature (New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts, 1963), pp. 124ff; also Klubertanz (Philosophy of Being, 1963), pp. 98-100, 116 (and Thomas Aquinas, Commentary on Aristotle's Metaphysics, Bk. VIII, lect.1, (ed.) Cathala, Nos. 1688-1689, as quoted p. 118). [Back]

28. Ibid. [Back]

29. See Moore (1982) and Lewin (1987), note 26 supra. [Back]

30. Irving, Philosophical and Scientific Analysis…(1991), see notes pp. 78-80. There is a rapidly increasing volume of this kind of work, e.g., Kollias, G; Hurst, J; deBoer, E. and Grosveld, F. "The human beta-globulin gene contains a downstream developmental specific enhancer", Nucleic Acids Research 15(14) (July, 1987), 5739-47; R.K. Humphries et al, "Transfer of human and murine globin-gene sequences into transgenic mice", American Journal of Human Genetics 37(2) (1985), 295-310; A. Schnieke et al, "Introduction of the human pro alpha 1 (I) collagen gene into pro alpha 1 (I) - deficient Mov-13 mouse cells leads to formation of functional mouse-human hybrid type I collagen", Proceedings of the National Academy of Science - USA 84(3) (Feb. 1987), pp. 764-8. [Back]

31. See note 27 supra. [Back]

32. pace R.M. Hare, "When does potentially count? A comment on Lockwood", Bioethics 2(3), 1988. [Back]

33. pace Michael Lockwood, "Warnock versus Powell (and Harradine): When does potentiality count?", Bioethics 2(3), 1988. [Back]

34. For brevity I will designate Aristotle's theory of substance as a composite, which is the pre-dominant one in his Categories, Physics, the first half of the Metaphysics, and even in many parts of his De Anima, as "Aristotle - proper". Aristotle's theory of substance as form alone - or as only the "rational" part of the form, and the succession of souls as found predominantly in the second half of his Metaphysics and in parts of the De Anima, contradicts the former theory. (See 150-page Appendix A, "Aristotle: A question of substance", in my dissertation, Philosophical and Scientific Analysis …, pp. 296-381). There is also some degree of contradiction in Thomas - insofar as he sometimes "unblushingly" follows Aristotle's theory of separate form (see, for example, the differences between the definition of a human being and that of a human soul in the De Ente et Essentia in Chapter Two and Chapter Four). Also see note 100 for come contemporary criticisms of Aristotle's inconsistencies on "substance". It is worth noting that for both of them the state of human embryology and chemistry was still rather primitive (e.g., both still held for only 4 physical elements - air, earth, fire and water). [Back]

35. Aristotle, Physica 2.1.193b, 3-5, (McKeon, 1941), p.238. [Back]

36. Ibid., 2.2.194b, 12-14, p. 240; see also 2.2.193b, 33-37, p. 239. [Back]

37. Aristotle, De Anima 1.5.411b, 14-18, (McKeon, 1941), p. 554. [Back]

38. Aristotle, De Anima, 1.5.411b, 24-28, (McKeon, 1941), p.554. [Back]

39. Aristotle, Metaphysica, 3.2.997b18-998a10, (McKeon, 1941), p. 721; see also 11.1.1059a34-1059b14. pp. 850-851; for Aquinas, see ST, Ia.q.45, a.4, ad.2, p. 235. [Back]

40. Thomas Aquinas, ST, Ia.q29, a.1, ans., ad.2,3,5, p. 156; ibid, a.2, ans., p. 157; also ST, IIIa.q19, a.1, ad.4.2127; see also, Kevin Doran, "Person-a key concept for ethics", Linacre Quarterly 56(4), 1989, p.39. [Back]

41. See notes 22 and 40 supra; also Thomas Aquinas, On being and Essence, Armand Maurer (trans.), (Toronto: Pontifical Institute of Mediaeval Studies, 1983), Chap. 2; also The Division and Method of the Sciences, Armand Mauer (trans.), (Toronto: Pontifical Institute of Mediaeval Studies, 1986), p. 14, 29, 39, 40. [Back]

42. Thomas Aquinas, ST, IIIa. q19, a.1, ad.4.2127; see also Kevin Doran (1989), p. 39. [Back]

43. Thomas Aquinas, ST, Ia.q75, a.4, ans., p. 366. [Back]

44. For example, Suarez, McCormick, Ford, Wallace and Bole, infra. [Back]

45. Aristotle, De Anima, 1.5.411b, 14-18, (McKeon, 1941), p. 554; also, 1.5.411b, 24-28, p. 554; for Aquinas, see notes 41 and 39, supra. [Back]

46. As the Thomist Klubertanz has expressed it, the human soul, being a form, cannot be divided. The ovum and sperm unite, "thus giving rise to a single cell with the material disposition required for the presence of a soul": Klubertanz, The Philosophy of Nature, 1953, p. 312. Also see B. Ashley and K. O'Rourke, Ethics of Health Care: An Introductory Textbook (Washington, D.C.: Georgetown University Press, 1994), pp. 149-151. [Back]

47. Carlos Bedate and Robert Cefalo, "The zygote: to be or not be a person", Journal of Medicine and Philosophy 14(6), 1989, p. 641 -645. [Back]

48. Thomas J. Bole, III, "Metaphysical accounts of the zygote as a person and the veto power of facts", Journal of Medicine and Philosophy 14, 1989: 647-653; also, "Zygotes, souls, substances, and persons", Journal of Medicine and Philosophy 15, 1990: 637-652. [Back]

49. Benjamin Lewin (ed.), Genes III (New York: John Wiley and Sons, 1983), p. 681; also Alan E.H. Emery, Elements of Medical Genetics (New York: Churchill Livingstone, 1983), p. 93. [Back]

50. In addition to the references on "information cascading", see also those in note 25 supra. [Back]

51. Antoine Suarez, "Hydatidiform moles and teratomas confirm the human identity of the preimplantaion embryo", Journal of Medicine and Philosophy 15, 1990, 630. [Back]

52. H. Holtzer, J. Biekl and B. Holtzer, "Induction-dependent and lineage-dependent models for cell-diversification are mutually exclusive", Progress in Clinical Biological Research 175:3-11 (1985); Mavilio, F. et al, "Molecular mechanisms of human hemoglobin switching: selective under-methylation and expression of globin genes in embryonic, fetal and adult erythroblasts", Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences USA 80:22:664-8 (1983); C. Hart et al, "Homeobox gene complex on mouse chromosome II: molecular cloning, expression in embryogenesis, and homology to a human homeo box locus", Cell 43:1:9-18 (1985). [Back]

53. Jerome Lejeune (Nobel Prize, genetics), testimony in Davis v Davis, Circuit Court for Blount County, State of Tennessee at Maryville, Tennessee, 1989; as reprinted in Martin Palmer, A Symphony of the Pre-Born Child: Part Two (Hagerstown, MD: NAAPC, 1989), 9-10. [Back]

54. Bedate and Cefalo (1989), p. 641. [Back]

55. A.E. Szulmann, U. Surti, "The syndromes of hydatidiform mole. I. Cytogenic and morphologic correlation", American Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology 131:665-671 (1978); M.S.E. Wimmers, J.V. Van der Merwe, "Chromosome studies on early human embryos fertilized in vitro", Human Reproduction 7:894-900 (1988). See also Suarez, note 61 supra. [Back]

56. See, e.g., Richard McCormick, S.J., "Who or what is the preembryo?", paper presented at the Andre E. Hellegers Lecture (Washington, D.C. Georgetown University: May 17, 1990) (pre-publication manuscript); see also, McCormick, "Who or what is the Preembryo?", Kennedy Institute of Ethics Journal 1(1), 1991, p. 3; also see reference to Lejeune, p. 14, note 53 supra. [Back]

57. Lejeune, 1989, p. 14; also, Bruce Carlson, Human Embryology and Developmental Biology (St. Louis, MO: Mosby), p. 33. [Back]

58. For example, Grobstein and McCormick, Ford, Wallace infra. [Back]

59. Lejeune, 1989, p. 17, 20; also see article by Mavilio, where he explains that the modulation of the methylation pattern represents a key mechanism for regulating the expression of human globin genes during embryonic, fetal and adult development in humans. Mavilio et al, "Molecular mechanisms of human hemoglobin switching: selective undermethylation and expression of globin genes in embryonic, fetal and adult erythroblasts", Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences USA, 80(22) (1983): p. 690;7-11; see also Alan E.H. Emery, Elements of Medical Genetics (New York: Churchill Livingstone, 1983), p. 103. [Back]

60. See references on "cascading" in note 49, supra; also "transgenic mice" in note 30, supra. [Back]

61. Antoine Suarez, "Hydatidiform moles and teratomas confirm the human identity of the preimplantation embryo", Journal of Medicine and Philosophy 15 (1990): p. 631. [Back]

62. McCormick, p. 3, note 56 supra. [Back]

63. Ronan O'Rahilly and Fabiola Muller, Human Embryology and Teratology (New York: John Wiley & Sons, 1994), footnote p. 55: "the ill-defined and inaccurate term pre-embryo … is not used in this book". See also C. Ward Kischer, "Human development and reconsideration of ensoulment:, Linacre Quarterly (Feb. 1993), 60:1:57-63; also Kischer (1992, 1993, 1994) in note 4 supra. [Back]

64. McCormick, p. 3, note 56 supra. [Back]

65. Keith L. Moore, The Developing Human (Philadelphia: W.B. Saunders Co., 1982), p. 33, 62-63, 68, 111, 127; Ronan O'Rahilly (1994), p. 51; William Larsen, Human Embryology (New York: Churchill Livingstone, 1993), p. 19. 33; Bruce Carlson, Human Embryology and Developmental Biology (St. Louis, MO: Mosby), pp. 34-35. See also see K. Chada et al, "An embryonic pattern of expression of a human fetal globin gene in transgenic mice", Nature (1986), 319:6055:685-9; also G. Migliaccio et al, "Human embryonic hemopoiesis. Kinetics of progenitors and precursor underlying the yolk sac - liver transition:, Journal of Clinical Investigation 78(1), 1986: 51-60. [Back]

66. McCormick, p. 4, note 56 supra. [Back]

67. Karen Dawson, "Segmentation and moral status", in Peter Singer et al, Embryo Experimentation (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1990), p. 58; see also Keith Moore (1982), p. 133. [Back]

68. Dame Mary Warnock, Report of the Committee of Inquiry into Human Fertilization and Embryology (London: Her Majesty's Stationary Office, 1984), p. 17; National Institutes of Health: Report of the Human Embryo Research Panel (Washington, D.C.: NIH, Sept. 27, 1994), pp. 45ff. [Back]

69. E.g., see Larsen (1993), p. 1: "… gametes which will unite at fertilization to initiate the embryonic development of a new individual [i.e., the zygote]"; Kischer (1993), note 63 supra; A. Fisher, "Individuogenesis and a book by Fr. Ford", Anthropotes (1991), 2:199f. [Back]

70. C. Ward Kischer, "Human development and reconsideration of ensoulment" Linacre Quarterly (Feb. 1993), 60:1:57-63. [Back]

71. During taped participation at the "Ethics in Research Conference", FIDIA (Georgetown University, Washington, D.C., April 1991). [Back]

72. E.g., John A. Robertson, "Extracorporeal embryos and the abortion debate", Journal of Contemporary Health Law and Policy 2:53:53-70 (1986). Significantly, he used this argument while representing the father in the Davis vs Davis frozen human embryo appeal - and won the appeal. [Back]

73. National Institutes of Health: Report of the Human Embryo Research Panel, September 27, 1994; pp. 47, 50, 51; available free of charge from Division of Science Policy Analysis and Development, National Institutes of Health, Bldg. 1, Room 218, 9000 Rockville Pike, Bethesda, MD 20892; phone 301-496-1454. Interestingly, these N.I.H. Recommendations referenced their "human" embryology chart and their list of scientific definitions on the book by Australians Peter Singer (a philosopher), Helga Kuhse (an ethicist), Kasimba (a lawyer) and Karen Dawson (a geneticist). In that book, [Human Experimentation, (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1990)] the chart and scientific definitions have no references. There was no human embryologist on that N.I.H. Panel. See also, D.N. Irving, "Testimony before the NIH Human Embryo Research Panel", Linacre Quarterly (1994), 61:82-89. [Back]

74. See personal communications from different pharmaceutical companies to Judie Brown, President, American Life League, April 30, 1996, and August 30, 1996. Also used and defended recently in T.V. debates by representatives of The Center For Reproductive Law and Policy: Cable Network New York, "News Talk Television", July 2, 1996, 11 A.M.; CBS News, "Up to the Minute", July 1, 1996, 3 and 5 A.M. These advocates redefined several embryological terms, including "abortifacient = contraception", "pregnancy begins at implantation", and that we don't know when the life of a human being begins because that is a philosophical or theological question. They also claimed that the American Medical Association and the World Health Organization supported their claims - which they do not. [Back]

75. Norman Ford, When Did I Begin? (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1988), p. 298. [Back]

76. Ibid., p. 156. [Back]

77. Keith L. Moore, The Developing Human (1982), p. 1. [Back]

78. William A. Wallace, "Nature and human nature as the norm in medical ethics:, in Edmund D. Pellegrino, John P. Langan and John Collins Harvey (eds.), Catholic Perspectives on Medical Morals (Dordrecht: Kluwer Academic Publishing, 1989), 23-53. [Back]

79. Ibid., p. 30. [Back]

80. Aristotle, Metaphysica VI, 1029 a.20, Ross (trans.), in Klubertanz, Philosophy of Being (1963), p. 115 (note 27); for Aquinas see ST, Ia.q6, a.1., ad.3, p. 330; also Commentary on Aristotle's Metaphysics, Book VIII, lect. 1 (ed. Cathala, No. 1686), in Klubertanz (1963), p. 100, and 124-125. [Back]

81. Klubertanz (1963), p. 100. [Back]

82. Thomas Aquinas, ST, Ia.q.45, a.4, ad.1 and 2, p. 235; also, Ia.q6, a.1., ad.3, p. 330; also Ia q.65, a.3, ans., p. 327; also ibid, a.4, sed contra, p. 327; also ibid, ans., p. 328-329; also, Ia.q.76, a.7, ans., 381. [Back]

83. Aristotle, Categories, in Ross (1985), p. 20-21; Thomas Aquinas, The Division and Method of the Sciences (Mauer, ed., 1986), pp. 37-38. [Back]

84. Wallace (1989), p. 43-44. [Back]

85. Ibid., p. 33. [Back]

86. D. Gareth Jones, "Brain birth and personal identity", Journal of Medical Ethics 15(4), 1989, 178. [Back]

87. Howard W. Jones and Charlotte Schroder, "The process of human fertilization: implications for moral status", Fertility and Sterility 48(2), Aug. 1987: p. 192. [Back]

88. G. Gareth Jones (1989), p. 177. [Back]

89. See arguments relying on this fact by Singer and Englehardt, infra [Back]

90. Rene Descartes, Meditations on First Philosophy, in John Cottingham, Robert Stoothoff and Dugald Murdoch (trans.), The Philosophical Writings of Descartes (New York: Press Syndicate of the University of Cambridge, 1984), 2nd Meditation, 12ff. [Back]

91. John Locke, An Essay Concerning Human Understanding, A.D. Woozley (ed.) (London: Fontana/Collins, 1964), Book Two, Ch. XXXI, pp. 211-12. [Back]

92. H.T. Englehardt, The Foundations of Bioethics (New York: Oxford University Press, 1985), p. 111. [Back]

93.. Michael Tooley, "Abortion and infanticide", in Marshall Cohen et al (ed.), The Rights and Wrongs of Abortions, (New Jersey: Princeton University Press, 1974), pp. 59, 64. [Back]

94. Helga Kuhse and Peter Singer, "For sometimes letting - and helping - die", Law, Medicine and Health Care 3(4), 1986: pp. 149-153; also Kuhse and Singer, Should the Baby Live? The Problem of Handicapped Infants (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1985), p. 138; Peter Singer and Helga Kuhse, "The ethics of embryo research", Law, Medicine and Health Care 14(13-14), 1987. For one reaction, see Gavin J. Fairbairn, "Kuhse, Singer and slippery slopes", Journal of Medical Ethics 14 (1988), p. 134. [Back]

95. Peter Singer, "Taking life: abortion", in Practical Ethics (London: Cambridge University Press, 1981), p. 118. [Back]

96. Peter Singer, "Taking life: abortion" (1981), p. 118. [Back]

97. Richard G. Frey, The ethics of the search for benefits: Animal experimentation in medicine", in Raanan Gillon (ed.), Principles of Health Care Ethics (New York: John Wiley & Sons, 1994), pp. 1067-1075.
For some arguments counter, see: Adil E. Shamoo and D.N. Irving, "The ethics of research on the mentally disabled", chapter in D.C. Thomasma and J. Monagle (eds.), Health Care Ethics: Critical Issues for the 21st Century, 1997 (forthcoming); Shamoo, Irving and Langenberg, "Comparison of U.S. and non-U.S. studies from psychiatric literature on schizophrenia", Cambridge Quarterly on Health Care Ethics 1997 (forthcoming); J. Katz, "Ethics in neurobiological research with human subjects", Accountability in Research (1996), 4:277-283; Shamoo and T.J. Keay, "Ethical concerns about relapse studies", Cambridge Quarterly on Health Care Ethics (1996), 5:373-386; D.N. Irving, "Background paper: Washouts/relapses in neurological research using human subjects", in Shamoo (ed.), Proceedings of the First Baltimore Conference on Ethics: Ethics in Neurobiological Research With Human Subjects (New York: Gordon and Breach Science Publishers, 1996); D.N. Irving, "Psychiatric research: Reality check", The Journal of the California Alliance for the Mentally Ill (Spring 1994), 5:1:42-44 (see also similar articles there by Hassner, Shamoo, Becker, Caplan, and the Journal's "Postscript"); Shamoo and Irving, "Accountability in research with persons with mental illness", Accountability in Research (Nov. 1993), 3:1:1-17; Shamoo and Irving, "The PSDA and the depressed elderly: Intermittent competency revisited", Journal of Clinical Ethics (Feb. 1993), 4:1:74-80; R. A. Destro, "Quality-of-life ethics and constitutional jurisprudence: The demise of natural rights and equal protection for the disabled and incompetent", Journal of Contemporary Health Law and Policy (Spring 1996), pp, 1-11. For a more historical background, see: B. Muller-Hill, Murderous Science (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1988); R. Proctor, Racial Hygiene-Medicine Under the Nazis (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1988); J. Lifton, The Nazi Doctors (New York: Plenum Press, 1986); B. Barber, Research On Human Subjects (New York: Russell Sage Foundation, 1993); H. Jonas, The Imperative of Responsibility (Chicago: Chicago University Press, 1984); Jay Katz, Experimentation With Human Beings (New York: Russell Sage Foundation, 1972); A.C. Ivy, "The history and ethics of the use of human subjects in medical experiments", Science (1948), 108:1-5. [Back]

98. M.M. Uhlmann, "The legal logic of euthanasia", First Things (June/July 1996), 39-43. [Back]

99. Similar to my concern with the use of the terms "pre-embryo" and "person" used in these bioethics "personhood" debates, see the exquisite work demonstrating historically the abuses perpetrated on "vulnerable" populations by means of redefining them as in some way "sub-human" beings, by William Brennan, Dehumanizing the Vulnerable: When Word Games Take Lives (Chicago: Loyola University Press, 1995). [Back]

100. O'Rahilly and Muller (1994), pp. 8-9. [Back]

101. Robert H. Bork, Slouching Towards Gomorrah: Modern Liberalism and American Decline (New York: Harper-Collins [Regan Books], 1996), p. 192, also pp. 174ff. See also notes 72, 73, 74 supra. [Back]

102. E.D. Pellegrino, "Character and the ethical conduct of research", Accountability in Research 2(1), 1992: pp. 1-11; E.D. Pellegrino "Trust and distrust in professional ethics", in E.D. Pellegrino, R. Veatch, J. Langan, Ethics, Trust, and the Professions (Washington, D.C.: Georgetown University Press, 1991), pp. 69-85; E.D. Pellegrino "Character, virtue and self-interest in the ethics of the professions", Journal of Contemporary Health Law and Policy 5 (Spring 1989), pp. 53-73. [Back]

For works more focused on bench research science, see: D.N. Irving, "The impact of scientific 'misinformation' on other fields: Philosophy, theology, biomedical ethics and public policy", Accountability in Research (April 1993), 2:4:243-272; A.E. Shamoo, "Role of conflict of interest in public advisory councils" (Chapter 17), in D. Cheney, Ethical Issues in Research (Frederick, MD: University Publishing Group, Inc., 1993); A.E. Shamoo, "Role of conflict of interest in scientific objectivity: A case of a Nobel Prize work", Accountability in Research (1992), 2:55-75; A.E. Shamoo, "Policies and quality assurance in the pharmaceutical industry", Accountability in Research (1991), 1:273-284; A.E. Shamoo, "Policies and quality assurance in the pharmaceutical industry", Accountability in Research (1991), 1:273-284; A.E. Shamoo, "Role of conflict of interest in public advisory councils", Fidea Research Foundation Proceedings (1991); John C. Bailar III, Marcia Angell, Sharon Boots et al, Ethics and Policy in Scientific Publication (Bethesda, MD: Council of Biology Editors, Inc., 1990); A.E. Shamoo, "Organizational structure and function of research and development" (Chapter 4), in A.E. Shamoo (ed.), Principles of Research Data Audit (New York: Gordon and Breach, 1989); Peter McCullagh,The Foetus as Transplant Donor: Scientific, Social and Ethical Perspectives (New York: John Wiley and Sons, 1987); A.E. Shamoo and Z. Annau, "Ensuring scientific integrity", Nature (1987), 327:550; Gerhard Portele, "Moral development and education", in David Gosling and Bert Musschenga, Science, Education and Ethical Values (Geneva: World Council of Churches Publications; and Washington, D.C.: Georgetown University Press, 1985), pp. 31-36; for a feminist view see Evelyn Fox Keller, Reflections of Gender and Science (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1985); Gerrit Manenschijn, "Reasoning in science and ethics", in Gosling (1985), pp. 37-54; for an historical view, see Crombie, Medieval and Early Modern Science (New York: Doubleday Anchor Books, 1959). [Back]

103. D. N. Irving, "Politization of science and philosophy", C.E.R.P.H. Newsletter no. 2, p. 4 (Poitiers, France: Centre d'Etudes sur la Reconnaissance de la Personne Humaine, 1995); D.N. Irving, "'New age' embryology text books: 'Pre-embryo', 'pregnancy' and abortion counseling; Implications for fetal research", Linacre Quarterly (May 1994), 61:2:42-62. [Back]

104. Mary Louise Gill, Aristotle on Substance (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1989); Charlotte Witt, Substance and Essence in Aristotle (New York: Cornell University Press, 1989); Marjorie Grene, A Portrait of Aristotle (Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, 1963). Also see note 34 supra. [Back]

105. J. M. de Torre, "Transcendental Thomism and the encyclical Veritas Splendor", Fellowship of Catholic Scholars Newsletter (April 1995), pp. 21-24; G.C. Reilly, "The empiricism of Thomistic ethics", Proceedings of the American Catholic Philosophical Association (Washington, D.C.: The Office of the Secretary of the Association, The Catholic University of America, 1956), pp. 1-36. [Back]

106. Paul Edwards, ed. The Encyclopedia of Philosophy (New York: Macmillan Publishing Co., 1967); Vol. 1, pp. 341-352. [Back]

107. D. N. Irving, "Academic fraud and conceptual transfer in bioethics: Abortion, human embryo research, and psychiatric research", in J.W. Koterski (ed.), Life and Learning IV: Proceedings of the Fourth University Faculty For Life Conference (Washington, D.C.: University Faculty For Life, June 1994), pp. 193-215. [Back]

108. Rena A. Gorlin (ed.), Codes of Professional Responsibility (Washington, D.C.: The Bureau of National Affairs, Inc., 1991). [Back]

109. E.g., to name but a few: the current legislation pending in the State of Maryland for the use of incompetent mentally ill patients in experimental research; National Commission for the Protection of Human Subjects of Biomedical and Behavioral Research, The Belmont Report (Washington, D.C: U.S. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare, 1978) (the explicit basis for all of these documents); President's Commission for the Study of Ethical Problems in Medicine and Biomedical and Behavioral Research, several individual Reports including Summing Up (Washington, D.C., U.S. Government Printing Office, 1983); United States Code of Federal Regulations: Protection of Human Subjects 45 CFR 46 (revised Jan. 12, 1981, Mar. 8, 1983; reprinted July 1989 - now in the Common Rule for all departments of the federal government) (Washington, D.C.: DHHS); National Institutes of Health: Report of the Human Fetal Transplant Research Panel (Washington, D.C.: NIH, December 1988); NIH Guide for Grants and Contracts (Washington, D.C.: NIH, 1990); NIH Revitalization Act, Public Law 103-43 (June 1993); Office for the Protection from Research Risks (OPRR), Protecting Human Research Subjects: Institutional Review Board Guidebook (Washington, D.C. NIH, 1993); NIH Guidelines on the Inclusion of Women and Minorities as Subjects in Clinical Research, Federal Reg. 59 FR 14508 (Washington, D.C.: NIH, March 28, 1994); NIH Outreach Notebook On the Inclusion of Women and Minorities in Biomedical and Behavioral Research (Washington, D.C.: NIH, 1994); National Institutes of Health: Report of the Human Embryo Research Panel (Washington, D.C.: NIH, Sept. 27, 1994); the CIOMS/WHO International Ethical Guidelines for Biomedical Research Involving Human Subjects (Geneva: CIOMS/WHO, 1993). [Back]

110. To mention but a few: B. Ashley and K. O'Rourke, Ethics of Health Care (St. Louis, MO: The Catholic Health Association, 1996), pp. 250-251; T. Engelhardt, "Christian bioethics: A non-ecumenical rebirth", Bioethics Research Notes (Dec. 1995) (Australian), 7:4:37-38; J. F. Kilner, N.M. Cameron and D.L. Schiedermayer, Bioethics and the Future (Grand Rapids, MI: William Eerdmans Publishing Co., 1995); D. Brodeur, "Guidance for a failing system", Health Progress (Sept./Oct. 1995), 30-30-40; Daniel Callahan, "Bioethics: private choice and common ground", Hastings Center Report (May-June 1994), 28:31; Albert Jonsen, "Preface", in DuBose et al, What About Principles? Ferment in U.S. Bioethics (Valley Forge, PA: Trinity Press International, 1994); D.N. Irving, "Testimony before the NIH Human Embryo Research Panel", Linacre Quarterly (1994), 61:82-89; D.N. Irving, "Quality assurance auditors: Between a rock and a hard place", Quality Assurance: Good Practice, Regulation, and Law (March 1994), 3:1:33-52; see the many writers who reject bioethics "principlism" in Raanan Gillon (ed.), Principles of Health Care Ethics (New York: Wiley & Sons, 1994); D.N. Irving, "Which ethics for science and public policy?", Accountability in Research (1993), 3:2:3:77-99; D.N. Irving, "Philosophical and scientific critiques of "autonomy-based" ethics: Toward a reconstruction of the 'whole person' as the natural ground of ethics and community", The International Bioethics Conference: Beyond Autonomy: New International Perspectives for Bioethics (San Francisco, CA; April 16-18, 1993). A. Sharpe, How the Liberal Ideal Fails As a Foundation for Medical Ethics (Doctoral dissertation)(Washington, D.C.: Georgetown University, 1991), Chapters 1-3. [Back]

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