1 W. H. D. Rouse, Gods, Heroes, and Men of Ancient Greece (New York: New American Library, 2001), 159. [Back]
2 Other hybrid examples are male horse x female donkey (hinny); female horse x zebra male (zebrorse); female donkey x zebra male (zebronkey); all are sterile. S. M. Hopkins and G C. Althouse, "Reproductive Patterns of Horses," in McDonald's Veterinary Endocrinology and Reproduction, 5th ed., ed. M. H. Pineda (Ames: Iowa State Press, 2003), 428. [Back]
3 M. H. Pineda, "The Biology of Sex," in McDonald's, 203. [Back]
4 Ibid., 229; Hopkins and Althouse, "Reproductive Patterns of Horses," 429; M.H. Pineda, "Reproductive Patterns of Sheep and Goats," in McDonald's, 446. [Back]
5 Pineda, "Biology of Sex," 226-229. [Back]
6 Chimeras can also be formed (both artificially and naturally) between male cells and female cells of the same species (commonly known as hermaphrodites), or by the fusion of two zygotes. See Patricia Tippett, "Human Chimeras," in Chimeras in Developmental Biology, eds. Nicole Le Douarin and Anne McLaren (Orlando, FL: Academic Press, 1984). [Back]
7 Pineda, "Reproductive Patterns of Sheep and Goats," 446; and Dashka Slater, "Humouse," Legal Affairs 1.4 (November-December 2002): 20 28. [Back]
8 Richard M. Twyman and Bruce Whitelaw, "Genetic Engineering: Animal Cell Technology," in Encyclopedia of Cell Technology, vol. 2, ed. Raymond E. Spier (New York: John Wiley and Sons, 2000): 803-805. [Back]
9 Ibid., 808-809; R. A. Bowen, "Embryo Transfer in Domestic Animals," in McDonald's, 567-569. [Back]
10 Biagio John Melloni, ed., Melloni's Illustrated Medical Dictionary, 2nd ed. (Baltimore: Williams and Wilkins, 1985). [Back]
11 M.-C. King and A. C. Wilson, "Evolution at Two Levels in Humans and Chimpanzees," Science 188.4184 (April 11, 1975): 107-116. [Back]
12 Jonathan Marks, What It Means To Be 98% Chimpanzee: Apes, People, and Their Genes (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2002), 24. [Back]
13 Antoni Barrientos, Lesley Kenyon, and Carlos T. Moraes, "Human Xenomitochondrial Cybrids: Cellular Models of Mitochondrial Complex I Deficiency," Journal of Biological Chemistry 273.23 (June 5, 1998): 14210-14217. [Back]
14 Ying Chen et al., "Embryonic Stem Cells Generated by Nuclear Transfer of Human Somatic Nuclei into Rabbit Oocytes," Cell Research 13.4 (August 2003): 251-263. [Back]
15 Rick Weiss, "Cloning Yields Human-Rabbit Hybrid Embryo," Washington Post, August 14, 2003, A4. [Back]
16 See Exod. 22:18, Deut. 27:21, Lev. 20:15-16, and Lev. 18:23 ("You shall not have carnal relations with an animal, defiling yourself with it"). All scriptural quotations are from the New American Bible, St. Joseph Edition (New York: Catholic Book Publishing, 1992). [Back]
17 Slater, "Humouse"; and Mark Dowie, "Gods and Monsters," Mother Jones (January-February 2004), http://www.motherjones.com/news/feature/2004/01/12_401.html. [Back]
18 Joseph Fletcher, The Ethics of Genetic Control: Ending Reproductive Roulette (New York: Anchor Press/Doubleday, 1974), 173. [Back]
19 Slater, "Humouse"; and Dowie, "Gods and Monsters." [Back]
20 Newman "has grave concerns about genetically manipulating human embryos," because he believes it could lead to designer babies (which he dubs "yuppie eugenics") and the creation of human clones. Interestingly, he claims, "I'm pro-choice.... I don't want to valorize the embryo in any way. But I think it's damaging to the human community to get into a mindset where you can produce human embryos for any purpose." Slater, "Humouse." [Back]
21 For example, "when the agency objected to using human embryonic cells to help create a chimera, ... Newman's lawyers pointed out [that] it is legal to abort 100-percent-human embryos, and would make no sense to grant part-human embryos greater protection." Dowie, "Gods and Monsters." [Back]
22 Rick Weiss, "U.S. Denies Patent for a Too-Human Hybrid," Washington Post, February 13, 2005, A3. [Back]
23 Leon R. Kass, "The Wisdom of Repugnance," in Leon R. Kass and James Q. Wilson, The Ethics of Human Cloning (Washington, DC: AEI Press, 1998), 17-19. [Back]
24 President's Council on Bioethics, Reproduction and Responsibility: The Regulation of New Biotechnologies (Washington, DC: President's Council on Bioethics, 2004), 221. Available online at http://www.bioethics.gov/reports/reproductionandresponsibility/ _pcbe_final_reproduction_and_responsibility.pdf. [Back]
25 Ibid., 220 (original emphasis). [Back]
26 National Academies, Guidelines for Human Embryonic Stem Cell Research (Washington, DC: National Academies Press, 2005), 55. [Back]
27 Pontifical Academy for Life, Prospects for Xenotransplantation: Scientific Aspects and Ethical Considerations (September 26, 2001), n. 10; reprinted in The National Catholic Bioethics Quarterly 2.3 (Autumn 2002): 481-505. The Pontifical Academy for Life considers "personal identity" to be "the relation of an individual's unrepeatability and essential core to his being a person (ontological level) and feeling that he is a person (psychological level)" (n. 10, original emphases). [Back]
28 "A History of Xenotransplantation Experiments," Frontline, PBS, online program materials for "Organ Farm"(aired March 27, 2001), http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/pages/frontline/shows/organfarm/etc/cron.html. [Back]
29 Pontifical Academy for Life, Prospects, n. 11. [Back]
30 Ibid., note 61. An exception is given only for gonad transplants performed to "restore a sufficient hormonal function," and only if the "integrity of the subject's personal identity has been ensured" and a "disassociation [of the procedure] with procreation has been established." [Back]
31 See Twyman and Whitelaw, "Genetic Engineering" 804-805; Pineda, "Reproductive Patterns of Sheep and Goats," 446; and Graça Almeida-Porada and Esmail D. Zanjani, "A Large Animal Noninjury Model for Study of Human Stem Cell Plasticity," Blood Cells, Molecules, and Diseases 32.1 (January-February 2004): 80. [Back]
32 Mark Greene et al., "Moral Issues of Human-Non-Human Primate Neural Grafting," Science 309.5733 (July 15, 2005): 385. [Back]
34 The biggest concern of Greene et al. was experiments in which human neural stem cells are transplanted into animals that are closely related to the human species and which are done at an early developmental stage of the animal. They said that "experiments of greatest concern are those in which human neural stem cells are engrafted into the developing brains of great apes and constitute a large proportion of the engrafted brain. On the basis of this concern, and on doubts about scientific merit, some of us believe that engraftment of human neural cells into great apes should not be permitted, particularly early in neural development." Ibid. [Back]
35 Almeida-Porada and Zanjani, "Large Animal Noninjury Model," 80; and Sylvia Pagán Westphal, "'Humanised' Organs Can be Grown in Animals," NewScientist.com (December 17, 2003), http://www.newscientist.com/article.ns?id=dn4492. [Back]
36 Judith A. Airey, "Human Mesenchymal Stem Cells Form Purkinje Fibers in Fetal Sheep Heart," Circulation 109.11 (March 23, 2004): 1401-1407. [Back]
37 Gaia Vince, "Pig-Human Chimeras Contain Cell Surprise," NewScientist.com (January 13, 2004), http://www.newscientist.com/article.ns?id=dn4558; Brenda M. Ogle et al., "Spontaneous Fusion of Cells between Species Yields Transdifferentiation and Retroviral Transfer in Vivo," FASEB Journal 18.3 (March 2004): 548-550. The pig-human cell hybrids exhibited both human and pig surface markers and contained chromosomal DNA coding for both human and pig genes. [Back]
38 Steven Reinberg, "Scientists Create Mice with Human Immune Systems," HealthDay (April 1, 2004), http://www.healthday.com/printer.cfm?id=518212; Elisabetta Traggiai et al., "Development of a Human Adaptive Immune System in Cord Blood CellTransplanted Mice," Science 304.5667 (April 2, 2004): 104-107. [Back]
39 Gesine Kogler et al., "A New Human Somatic Stem Cell from Placental Cord Blood with Intrinsic Pluripotent Differentiation Potential," The Journal of Experimental Medicine 200.2 (July 19, 2004): 123-135. [Back]
40 Kimberly B. Bjugstad et al., "Neural Stem Cells Implanted into MPTP-Treated Monkeys Increase the Size of Endogenous Tyrosine Hydroxylase-Positive Cells Found in the Striatum: A Return to Control Measures," Cell Transplantation 14.4 (2005): 183192. See also Eugene Redmond, interview by Tom Bearden, Online NewsHour with Jim Lehrer transcript, PBS television, July 2005, http://www.pbs.org/newshour/bb/science/julydecO5/chimeras_redmond-ext.html. [Back]
41 Redmond and his coworkers transplant approximately "8 to 10 million [human] cells in a [monkey] brain that maybe has 20 to 40 billion cells" Redmond interview by Beardon, PBS transcript. [Back]
42 Irving Weissman, interview by Tom Bearden, Online NewsHour with Jim Lehrer transcript, PBS television, July 2005, http://www.pbs.org/newshour/bb/science/july-decO5/ chimeras_weissman-ext.html. [Back]
43 Hank Greely, interview by Tom Bearden, Online NewsHour with Jim Lehrer transcript, PBS television, July 2005, http://www.pbs.org/newshour/bb/science/july-decO5/ chimeras greely-ext.html. [Back]
46 Advanced Cell Technology, "Advanced Cell Technology Announces Use of Nuclear Transfer Technology for Successful Generation of Human Embryonic Stem Cells," press release, November 12, 1998, http://www.advancedcell.com/press-release/advanced-celltechnology-announces-use-of-nuclear-transfer-technologyfor-successful-generation-ofhuman-embryonic-stem-cells. [Back]
47 Chen et al., "Embryonic Stem Cells," 251-263. [Back]
48 Andy Coghlan, "First Human Clone Embryo Ready for Implantation," NewScientist.com (September 15, 2003), http://www.newscientist.com/article.ns?id =dn4168. Granulosa cells are cells that surround the oocytes in ovaries. [Back]
49 Ulrich Muhlenhoff and R. Lill, "Mitochondria: Methods for Preparation," in Encyclopedia of Life Sciences, vol. 12, eds. Sarah Robertson et al. (London: Macmillan Publishers Ltd., 2002), 108. [Back]
50 The term also has another meaning in John Paul II's theology, referring to Adam's lack of female companionship. [Back]
51 John Paul II, General audience of October 10, 1979, Theology of the Body: Human Love in the Divine Plan (Boston: Pauline Books and Media, 1997), 36. [Back]
52 "We apply [the term 'original solitude'] to man in his totality. His body, through which he participates in the visible created world, makes him at the same time conscious of being 'alone.'" John Paul II, General audience of October 24, 1979, Theology of the Body, 38. [Back]
53 Gen. 1 :26-27: "Then God said: 'Let us make man in our image, after our likeness.' ... God created man in his image, in the divine image He created him; male and female He created them." John Paul II points out that "the biblical narrative does not speak of his likeness to the rest of creatures, but only to God." General audience of September 12, 1979, Theology of the Body, 28. [Back]
54 John Paul II, General audience, September 12, 1979, Theology of the Body, note 1, 90. [Back]
55 See Exod. 22:18: "Anyone who lies with an animal shall be put to death"; and Lev. 18:23: "You shall not have carnal relations with an animal, defiling yourself with it; nor shall a woman set herself in front of an animal to mate with it; such things are abhorrent." [Back]
56 See Deut. 27:22. Lev. 18:6-14, and Lev. 20:17, 19-21. [Back]
57 See Gaudium et spes, n. 22: "In reality it is only in the mystery of the Word made flesh that the mystery of humanity truly becomes clear.... Human nature ... has been raised in us also to a dignity beyond compare. For, by his incarnation, he, the Son of God, has in a certain way united himself with each individual." Vatican Council II, "Pastoral Constitution on the Church in the Modern World, Gaudium et spes, December 7, 1965," in Vatican Council II, vol. 1: Constitutions, Decrees, Declarations, ed. Austin Flannery (Northport, NY: Costello Publishing Company, 1996), 185. [Back]
58 Isa. 43:1, 4: "O Israel: Fear not, for I have redeemed you; I have called you by name: you are mine.... you are precious in my eyes." [Back]
1, 2,